dr Łukasz Mirocha
Pomeranian University in Słupsk
English abstract: The article aims to present and discuss two different views on the evolutionary sources of social norms. The views under study were delivered by famous nineteenth-century philosophers, Herbert Spencer and Peter Kropotkin. The former is usually linked with so-called social Darwinism, and the considerations in the article show why this label can be misleading. The latter represents so-called Russian evolutionism, whose distinctive trait is stressing animals’ cooperative behaviours rather than their competition. In the article, I assert that Charles Darwin’s thoughts should be considered a reference point for any discussion concerning the evolutionary sources of morality. Thus, a brief presentation of Darwin’s views precedes considerations devoted to Spencer and Kropotkin. The analysis in the article shows crucial similarities and differences between Spencer and Kropotkin in terms of their views on evolution and their social views. Spencer appears as a Lamarckian advocate of a minimal state, who sees competition and rivalry as natural to society. Kropotkin subscribes to the Darwinian approach and, being a fierce critic of the state, believes that abandoning it will reveal humans’ natural goodness.
Key words: origins of morality, evolutionary approach, survival of the fittest, mutual aid, social Darwinism, Lamarckism
Language: english
Published: Number 1(46)/2026, pp. 96–111.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.36280/AFPiFS.2026.1.96
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